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- Wrap long lines in the documentation, so that patches to the .tex files are more readable.

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- Fix several typos (see #1163)


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189
docs/adding.tex
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@ -1,16 +1,32 @@
Linux is now one of the most widespread operating system for embedded devices due to its openess as well as the wide variety of platforms it can run on. Many manufacturer actually use it in firmware you can find on many devices : DVB-T decoders, routers, print servers, DVD players ... Most of the time the stock firmware is not really open to the consumer, even if it uses open source software.
Linux is now one of the most widespread operating system for embedded devices due
to its openess as well as the wide variety of platforms it can run on. Many
manufacturer actually use it in firmware you can find on many devices: DVB-T
decoders, routers, print servers, DVD players ... Most of the time the stock
firmware is not really open to the consumer, even if it uses open source software.
You might be interested in running a Linux based firmware for your router for various reasons : extending the use of a network protocol (such as IPv6), having new features, new piece of software inside, or for security reasons. A fully open-source firmware is de-facto needed for such applications, since you want to be free to use this or that version of a particular reason, be able to correct a particular bug. Few manufacturers do ship their routers with a Sample Developpment Kit, that would allow you to create your own and custom firmware and most of the time, when they do, you will most likely not be able to complete the firmware creation process.
You might be interested in running a Linux based firmware for your router for
various reasons: extending the use of a network protocol (such as IPv6), having
new features, new piece of software inside, or for security reasons. A fully
open-source firmware is de-facto needed for such applications, since you want to
be free to use this or that version of a particular reason, be able to correct a
particular bug. Few manufacturers do ship their routers with a Sample Development Kit,
that would allow you to create your own and custom firmware and most of the time,
when they do, you will most likely not be able to complete the firmware creation process.
This is one of the reasons why OpenWrt and other firmware exists : providing a version independent, and tools independent firmware, that can be run on various platforms, known to be running Linux originaly.
This is one of the reasons why OpenWrt and other firmware exists: providing a
version independent, and tools independent firmware, that can be run on various
platforms, known to be running Linux originaly.
\subsection{Which Operating System does this device run?}
There is a lot of methods to ensure your device is running Linux. Some of them do need your router to be unscrewed and open, some can be done by probing the device using its external network interfaces.
There is a lot of methods to ensure your device is running Linux. Some of them do
need your router to be unscrewed and open, some can be done by probing the device
using its external network interfaces.
\subsubsection{Operating System fingerprinting and port scanning}
A large bunch of tools over the Internet exists in order to let you do OS fingerprinting, we will show here an example using \textbf{nmap} :
A large bunch of tools over the Internet exists in order to let you do OS
fingerprinting, we will show here an example using \textbf{nmap}:
\begin{Verbatim}
nmap -P0 -O <IP address>
@ -24,34 +40,58 @@ Running: Apple Mac OS X 10.4.X
OS details: Apple Mac OS X 10.4.8 (Tiger)
\end{Verbatim}
nmap is able to report whether your device uses a Linux TCP/IP stack, and if so, will show you which Linux kernel version is probably runs. This report is quite reliable and it can make the distinction between BSD and Linux TCP/IP stacks and others.
nmap is able to report whether your device uses a Linux TCP/IP stack, and if so,
will show you which Linux kernel version is probably runs. This report is quite
reliable and it can make the distinction between BSD and Linux TCP/IP stacks and others.
Using the same tool, you can also do port scanning and service version discovery. For instance, the following command will report which IP-based services are running on the device, and which version of the service is being used :
Using the same tool, you can also do port scanning and service version discovery.
For instance, the following command will report which IP-based services are running
on the device, and which version of the service is being used:
\begin{verbatim}
nmap -P0 -sV <IP address>
\end{verbatim}
The web server version, if identified, can be determining in knowing the Operating System. For instance, the \textbf{BOA} web server is typical from devices running an open-source Unix or Unix-like.
The web server version, if identified, can be determining in knowing the Operating
System. For instance, the \textbf{BOA} web server is typical from devices running
an open-source Unix or Unix-like.
\subsubsection{Wireless Communications Fingerprinting}
Although this method is not really known and widespread, using a wireless scanner to discover which OS your router or Access Point run can be used. We do not have a clear example of how this could be achieved, but you will have to monitor raw 802.11 frames and compare them to a very similar device running a Linux based firmware.
Although this method is not really known and widespread, using a wireless scanner
to discover which OS your router or Access Point run can be used. We do not have
a clear example of how this could be achieved, but you will have to monitor raw
802.11 frames and compare them to a very similar device running a Linux based firmware.
\subsubsection{Web server security exploits}
The Linksys WRT54G was originally hacked by using a "ping bug" discoverd in the web interface. This tip has not been fixed for months by Linksys, allowing people to enable the "boot\_wait" helper process via the web interface. Many web servers used in firmwares are open source web server, thus allowing the code to be audited to find an exploit. Once you know the web server version that runs on your device, by using \textbf{nmap -sV} or so, you might be interested in using exploits to reach shell access on your device.
The Linksys WRT54G was originally hacked by using a "ping bug" discovered in the
web interface. This tip has not been fixed for months by Linksys, allowing people
to enable the "boot\_wait" helper process via the web interface. Many web servers
used in firmwares are open source web server, thus allowing the code to be audited
to find an exploit. Once you know the web server version that runs on your device,
by using \textbf{nmap -sV} or so, you might be interested in using exploits to reach
shell access on your device.
\subsubsection{Native Telnet/SSH access}
Some firmwares might have restricted or unrestricted Telnet/SSH access, if so, try to log in with the web interface login/password and see if you can type in some commands. This is actually the case for some Broadcom BCM963xx based firmwares such as the one in Neuf/Cegetel ISP routers, Club-Internet ISP CI-Box and many others. Some commands, like \textbf{cat} might be left here and be used to determine the Linux kernel version.
Some firmwares might have restricted or unrestricted Telnet/SSH access, if so,
try to log in with the web interface login/password and see if you can type in
some commands. This is actually the case for some Broadcom BCM963xx based firmwares
such as the one in Neuf/Cegetel ISP routers, Club-Internet ISP CI-Box and many
others. Some commands, like \textbf{cat} might be left here and be used to
determine the Linux kernel version.
\subsubsection{Analysing a binary firmware image}
You are very likely to find a firmware binary image on the manufacturer website, even if your device runs a proprietary operating system. If so, you can download it and use an hexadecimal editor to find printable words such as \textbf{vmlinux}, \textbf{linux}, \textbf{ramdisk}, \textbf{mtd} and others.
You are very likely to find a firmware binary image on the manufacturer website,
even if your device runs a proprietary operating system. If so, you can download
it and use an hexadecimal editor to find printable words such as \textbf{vmlinux},
\textbf{linux}, \textbf{ramdisk}, \textbf{mtd} and others.
Some Unix tools like \textbf{hexdump} or \textbf{strings} can be used to analyse the firmware. Below there is an example with a binary firmware found other the Internet :
Some Unix tools like \textbf{hexdump} or \textbf{strings} can be used to analyse
the firmware. Below there is an example with a binary firmware found other the Internet:
\begin{verbatim}
hexdump -C <binary image.extension> | less (more)
@ -67,28 +107,43 @@ Scroll over the firmware to find printable words that can be significant.
\subsubsection{Amount of flash memory}
Linux can hardly fit in a 2MB flash device, once you have open the device and located the flash chip, try to find other the Internet its characteristics. If your flash chip is a 2MB or less device, your device is most likely to run a proprietary OS such as Windriver VxWorks, or a custom manufacturer OS like Zyxel ZynOS.
Linux can hardly fit in a 2MB flash device, once you have open the device and
located the flash chip, try to find other the Internet its characteristics. If
your flash chip is a 2MB or less device, your device is most likely to run a
proprietary OS such as WindRiver VxWorks, or a custom manufacturer OS like Zyxel ZynOS.
OpenWrt does not currently run on devices which have equal or less than 2MB of flash memory. This limitation will probably not be worked around since those devices are most of the time micro routers, or Wireless Access Points, which are not the main OpenWrt target.
OpenWrt does not currently run on devices which have equal or less than 2MB of
flash memory. This limitation will probably not be worked around since those
devices are most of the time micro routers, or Wireless Access Points, which are
not the main OpenWrt target.
\subsubsection{Pluging a serial port}
By using a serial port, you may reach the console that is being shown by the device for debugging or flashing purposes. By analysing the output of this device, you can easily notice if the device uses a Linux kenrel or something different.
By using a serial port, you may reach the console that is being shown by the device
for debugging or flashing purposes. By analysing the output of this device, you can
easily notice if the device uses a Linux kenrel or something different.
\subsection{Finding and using the manufacturer SDK}
Once you are sure your device run a Linux based firmware, you will be able to start hacking on it. If the manufacturer respect the GPL, it will have release with the device, a Sample Developpment Kit.
Once you are sure your device run a Linux based firmware, you will be able to start
hacking on it. If the manufacturer respect the GPL, it will have release with the
device, a Sample Development Kit.
\subsubsection{GPL violations}
Some manufacturers do release a Linux based binary firmware, with no sources at all. The first step before doing anything is to read the license coming with your device, then write them about this lack of Open Source code. If the manufacturer answers you they do not have to release a SDK containing Open Source software, then we recommend you get in touch with the gpl-violations.org community.
Some manufacturers do release a Linux based binary firmware, with no sources at all.
The first step before doing anything is to read the license coming with your device,
then write them about this lack of Open Source code. If the manufacturer answers
you they do not have to release a SDK containing Open Source software, then we
recommend you get in touch with the gpl-violations.org community.
You will find below a sample letter that can be sent to the manufacturer:
\begin{verse}
Miss, Mister,
I am using a <device name>, and I cannot find neither on your website nor on the CD-ROM the open source software used to build or modify the firmware.
I am using a <device name>, and I cannot find neither on your website nor on the
CD-ROM the open source software used to build or modify the firmware.
In conformance to the GPL license, you have to release the following sources:
@ -98,17 +153,20 @@ In conformance to the GPL license, you have to release the following sources :
Thank you very much in advance for your answer.
Best regards, <your namne>
Best regards, <your name>
\end{verse}
\subsubsection{Using the SDK}
Once the SDK is available, you are most likely not to be able to build a complete or functionnal firmware using it, but parts of it, like only the kernel, or only the root filesystem. Most manufacturers do not really care releasing a tool that do work every time you uncompress and use it.
Once the SDK is available, you are most likely not to be able to build a complete
or functional firmware using it, but parts of it, like only the kernel, or only
the root filesystem. Most manufacturers do not really care releasing a tool that
do work every time you uncompress and use it.
You should anyway be able to use the following components:
\begin{itemize}
\item kernel sources with more or less functionnal patches for your hardware
\item kernel sources with more or less functional patches for your hardware
\item binary drivers linked or to be linked with the shipped kernel version
\item packages of the toolchain used to compile the whole firmware: gcc, binutils, libc or uClibc
\item binary tools to create a valid firmware image
@ -126,9 +184,16 @@ Your work is now divided into the following tasks :
\subsubsection{Creating a hardware specific kernel patch}
Most of the time, the kernel source that comes along with the SDK is not really clean, and is not a standard Linux version, it also has architecture specific fixes backported from the \textbf{CVS} or the \textbf{git} repository of the kernel developpment trees. Anyway, some parts can be easily isolated and used as a good start to make a vanilla kernel work your hardware.
Most of the time, the kernel source that comes along with the SDK is not really
clean, and is not a standard Linux version, it also has architecture specific
fixes backported from the \textbf{CVS} or the \textbf{git} repository of the
kernel development trees. Anyway, some parts can be easily isolated and used as
a good start to make a vanilla kernel work your hardware.
Some directories are very likely to have local modifications needed to make your hardware be recognized and used under Linux. First of all, you need to find out the linux kernel version that is used by your hardware, this can be found by editing the \textbf{linux/Makefile} file.
Some directories are very likely to have local modifications needed to make your
hardware be recognized and used under Linux. First of all, you need to find out
the linux kernel version that is used by your hardware, this can be found by
editing the \textbf{linux/Makefile} file.
\begin{verbatim}
head -5 linux-2.x.x/Makefile
@ -139,9 +204,11 @@ EXTRAVERSION = z
NAME=Avast! A bilge rat!
\end{verbatim}
So now, you know that you have to download a standard kernel tarball at \textbf{kernel.org} that matches the version being used by your hardware.
So now, you know that you have to download a standard kernel tarball at
\textbf{kernel.org} that matches the version being used by your hardware.
Then you can create a \textbf{diff} file between the two trees, especially for the following directories :
Then you can create a \textbf{diff} file between the two trees, especially for the
following directories:
\begin{verbatim}
diff -urN linux-2.x.x/arch/<sub architecture> linux-2.x.x-modified/arch/<sub architecture> > 01-architecture.patch
@ -149,21 +216,42 @@ diff -urN linux-2.x.x/include/ linux-2.x.x-modified/include > 02-includes.patch
diff -urN linux-2.x.x/drivers/ linux-2.x.x-modified/drivers > 03-drivers.patch
\end{verbatim}
This will constitute a basic set of three patches that are very likely to contain any needed modifications that has been made to the stock Linux kernel to run on your specific device. Of course, the content produced by the \textbf{diff -urN} may not always be relevant, so that you have to clean up those patches to only let the "must have" code into them.
This will constitute a basic set of three patches that are very likely to contain
any needed modifications that has been made to the stock Linux kernel to run on
your specific device. Of course, the content produced by the \textbf{diff -urN}
may not always be relevant, so that you have to clean up those patches to only
let the "must have" code into them.
The fist patch will contain all the code that is needed by the board to be initialized at startup, as well as processor detection and other boot time specific fixes.
The fist patch will contain all the code that is needed by the board to be
initialized at startup, as well as processor detection and other boot time
specific fixes.
The second patch will contain all useful definitions for that board : adresses, kernel granularity, redifinitions, processor family and features ...
The second patch will contain all useful definitions for that board: adresses,
kernel granularity, redifinitions, processor family and features ...
The third patch may contain drivers for : serial console, ethernet NIC, wireless NIC, USB NIC ... Most of the time this patch contains nothing else than "glue" code that has been added to make the binary driver work with the Linux kernel. This code might not be useful if you plan on writing from scratch drivers for this hardware.
The third patch may contain drivers for: serial console, ethernet NIC, wireless
NIC, USB NIC ... Most of the time this patch contains nothing else than "glue"
code that has been added to make the binary driver work with the Linux kernel.
This code might not be useful if you plan on writing from scratch drivers for
this hardware.
\subsubsection{Making binary drivers work}
As we have explained before, manufacturers do release binary drivers in their GPL tarball. When those drivers are statically linked into the kernel, they become GPL as well, fortunately or unfortunately, most of the drivers are not statically linked. This anyway lets you a chance to dynamically link the driver with the current kernel version, and try to make them work together.
As we have explained before, manufacturers do release binary drivers in their GPL
tarball. When those drivers are statically linked into the kernel, they become GPL
as well, fortunately or unfortunately, most of the drivers are not statically linked.
This anyway lets you a chance to dynamically link the driver with the current kernel
version, and try to make them work together.
This is one of the most tricky and grey part of the fully open source projects. Some drivers require few modifications to be working with your custom kernel, because they worked with an earlier kernel, and few modifications have been made to the kernel in-between those versions. This is for instance the case with the binary driver of the Broadcom BCM43xx Wireless Chipsets, where only few differences were made to the network interface structures.
This is one of the most tricky and grey part of the fully open source projects.
Some drivers require few modifications to be working with your custom kernel,
because they worked with an earlier kernel, and few modifications have been made
to the kernel in-between those versions. This is for instance the case with the
binary driver of the Broadcom BCM43xx Wireless Chipsets, where only few differences
were made to the network interface structures.
Some general principles can be applied no matter which kernel version is used in order to make binary drivers work with your custom kernel :
Some general principles can be applied no matter which kernel version is used in
order to make binary drivers work with your custom kernel:
\begin{itemize}
\item turn on kernel debugging features such as:
@ -180,31 +268,46 @@ Some general principles can be applied no matter which kernel version is used in
\item catch the lockups and understand them
\end{itemize}
Most of the time, loading binary drivers will fail, and generate a kernel oops. You can know the last symbol the binary drivers attempted to use, and see in the kernel headers file, if you do not have to move some structures field before or after that symbol in order to keep compatibily with both the binary driver and the stock kernel drivers.
Most of the time, loading binary drivers will fail, and generate a kernel oops.
You can know the last symbol the binary drivers attempted to use, and see in the
kernel headers file, if you do not have to move some structures field before or
after that symbol in order to keep compatibily with both the binary driver and
the stock kernel drivers.
\subsubsection{Understanding the firmware format}
You might want to understand the firmware format, even if you are not yet capable of running a custom firmware on your device, because this is sometimes a blocking part of the flashing process.
You might want to understand the firmware format, even if you are not yet capable
of running a custom firmware on your device, because this is sometimes a blocking
part of the flashing process.
A firmare format is most of the time composed of the following fields:
\begin{itemize}
\item header, containing a firmare version and additionnal fields : Vendor, Hardware version ...
\item header, containing a firmare version and additional fields: Vendor, Hardware version ...
\item CRC32 checksum on either the whole file or just part of it
\item Binary or compressed kernel image
\item Binary or compressed root filesystem image
\item potential garbage
\end{itemize}
Once you have figured out how the firmware format is partitionned, you will have to write your own tool that produces valid firmare binaries. One thing to be very careful here is the endianness of either the machine that produces the binary firmware and the device that will be flashed using this binary firmware.
Once you have figured out how the firmware format is partitioned, you will have
to write your own tool that produces valid firmare binaries. One thing to be very
careful here is the endianness of either the machine that produces the binary
firmware and the device that will be flashed using this binary firmware.
\subsubsection{Writing a flash map driver}
The flash map driver has an important role in making your custom firmware work because it is responsible of mapping the correct flash regions and associated rights to specific parts of the system such as : bootloader, kernel, user filesystem.
The flash map driver has an important role in making your custom firmware work
because it is responsible of mapping the correct flash regions and associated
rights to specific parts of the system such as: bootloader, kernel, user filesystem.
Writing your own flash map driver is not really a hard task once you know how your firmware image and flash is structured. You will find below a commented example that covers the case of the device where the bootloader can pass to the kernel its partition plan.
Writing your own flash map driver is not really a hard task once you know how your
firmware image and flash is structured. You will find below a commented example
that covers the case of the device where the bootloader can pass to the kernel its partition plan.
First of all, you need to make your flash map driver be visible in the kernel configuration options, this can be done by editing the file \textbf{linux/drivers/mtd/maps/Kconfig} :
First of all, you need to make your flash map driver be visible in the kernel
configuration options, this can be done by editing the file
\textbf{linux/drivers/mtd/maps/Kconfig}:
\begin{verbatim}
config MTD_DEVICE_FLASH
@ -215,13 +318,15 @@ config MTD_DEVICE_FLASH
Bootloader Foo and Bootloader Bar.
\end{verbatim}
Then add your source file to the \textbf{linux/drivers/mtd/maps/Makefile}, so that it will be compiled along with the kernel.
Then add your source file to the \textbf{linux/drivers/mtd/maps/Makefile}, so
that it will be compiled along with the kernel.
\begin{verbatim}
obj-\$(CONFIG_MTD_DEVICE_FLASH) += device-flash.o
\end{verbatim}
You can then write the kernel driver itself, by creating a \textbf{linux/drivers/mtd/maps/device-flash.c} C source file.
You can then write the kernel driver itself, by creating a
\textbf{linux/drivers/mtd/maps/device-flash.c} C source file.
\begin{verbatim}
// Includes that are required for the flash map driver to know of the prototypes:

29
docs/bugs.tex
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@ -1,9 +1,13 @@
OpenWrt as an open source software opens its developpment to the community by having a publicly browseable subversion repository. The Trac software which comes along with a Subversion frontend, a Wiki and a ticket reporting system is used as an interface between developpers, users and contributors in order to make the whole developpment process much easier and efficient.
OpenWrt as an open source software opens its development to the community by
having a publicly browseable subversion repository. The Trac software which
comes along with a Subversion frontend, a Wiki and a ticket reporting system
is used as an interface between developers, users and contributors in order to
make the whole development process much easier and efficient.
We make distinction between two kinds of people within the Trac system:
\begin{itemize}
\item developpers, able to report, close and fix tickets
\item developers, able to report, close and fix tickets
\item reporters, able to add a comment, patch, or request ticket status
\end{itemize}
@ -25,22 +29,29 @@ Regarding the kind of ticket that is open, a patch is welcome in those cases :
\item new features that can be added by modifying existing OpenWrt files
\end{itemize}
In order to include a patch, you need to produce it, this can be done by using the \textbf{svn diff} command which generates the differences between your local copy (modified) and the version on the OpenWrt repository (unmodified yet). Then attach the patch with a description, using the "Attach" button.
In order to include a patch, you need to produce it, this can be done by using the
\textbf{svn diff} command which generates the differences between your local copy
(modified) and the version on the OpenWrt repository (unmodified yet). Then attach
the patch with a description, using the "Attach" button.
Once the ticket is open, a developper will take care of it, if so, the ticket is marked as "accepted" with the developper name. You can add comments at any time to the ticket, even when it is closed.
Once the ticket is open, a developer will take care of it, if so, the ticket is marked
as "accepted" with the developer name. You can add comments at any time to the ticket,
even when it is closed.
\subsubsection{Closing a ticket}
A ticket might be closed by a developper because :
A ticket might be closed by a developer because:
\begin{itemize}
\item the problem is already fixed (wontfix)
\item the problem described is not judged as valid, and comes along with an explanation why (invalid)
\item the developpers know that this bug will be fixed upstream (wontfix)
\item the developers know that this bug will be fixed upstream (wontfix)
\item the problem is very similar to something that has already been reported (duplicate)
\item the problem cannot be reproduced by the developpers (worksforme)
\item the problem cannot be reproduced by the developers (worksforme)
\end{itemize}
A the same time, the reporter may want to get the ticket closed since he is not longer able to trigger the bug, or found it invalid by himself.
A the same time, the reporter may want to get the ticket closed since he is not
longer able to trigger the bug, or found it invalid by himself.
When a ticket is closed by a developper and marked as "fixed", the comment contains the subversion changeset which corrects the bug.
When a ticket is closed by a developer and marked as "fixed", the comment contains
the subversion changeset which corrects the bug.